## Nature's Most Dedicated Travelers Take Flight

Each year, as winter loosens its grip and the days grow longer, something remarkable happens across North American skies. Geese — honking loudly and gliding in their signature formations — begin their annual pilgrimage northward, covering thousands of miles in one of nature's most impressive seasonal spectacles.

But what actually drives these birds to undertake such an ambitious journey, and how do they manage to pull it off successfully year after year?

## Why Geese Leave Their Winter Homes

At its core, goose migration is about one thing: food. According to Mitch Weegman, an avian ecologist and professor at the University of Saskatchewan in Canada, geese are essentially forced out of their winter habitats by harsh environmental conditions.

"Because it's cold, sometimes ice prevents access to drinking water for these birds, and snow is preventing access to food," Weegman explained. "So they're getting kicked out of these places."

Staying put year-round isn't a practical option either. Any given ecosystem can only sustain a limited number of species competing for the same resources, making the seasonal move both a necessity and a survival strategy.

Geese recognize the signal to head north when temperatures rise, daylight hours increase, snow begins to melt, and fresh vegetation starts emerging from the ground.

"They are following the green wave, as we call it," said Andrea Kölzsch, an assistant professor of ecology at Radboud University in the Netherlands.

## The Migration Timeline and Major Flight Routes

The northward migration typically begins in late February and continues through May. Across North America, migrating geese travel along four established corridors known as flyways:

- **The Pacific Flyway** — stretching between Alaska and California
- **The Central Flyway** — running from western and northern Canada down to Arizona and Texas
- **The Mississippi Flyway** — connecting northern Canada to Louisiana
- **The Atlantic Flyway** — spanning from eastern Canada all the way to Florida

## Fueling Up for the Long Haul

Before departing, geese spend considerable time eating — and strategically so. Their pre-migration diet consists heavily of corn, beans, and wheat, which helps them increase fat and protein reserves to sustain energy over long distances.

However, there is a careful balancing act involved. Overloading on food can slow the birds down significantly, so geese must strike the right nutritional balance before taking off, Kölzsch noted.

## The Famous V-Formation Explained

Perhaps the most recognizable feature of migrating geese is their aerodynamic V-shaped flight formation. While visually striking, this pattern likely serves a highly practical aerodynamic purpose.

"The bird in front flies, and the one flying behind it can profit from the air currents that the wings of the first bird produce," Kölzsch explained.

Leadership within the formation isn't fixed. Geese regularly rotate the lead position, distributing the physical demand of flying at the front among multiple birds. This rotation happens more frequently when a bird is unwell or when challenging weather conditions arise.

Communication plays a constant role throughout the journey. The persistent honking heard during migration is actually an ongoing exchange of information and decision-making among the flock, helping coordinate movement and leadership changes.

## Multi-Generational Flocks and Family Bonds

Migrating flocks are far from random groups of strangers. They typically consist of multiple generations — parents, offspring, siblings, and what Weegman describes as "loose family associates" — all traveling together.

The journey's duration varies considerably by species and individual. Faster birds may reach their destination within a few days, while most geese require several weeks or even months to complete the trip. Some species, such as snow geese and Ross's geese, make frequent rest stops along the way. Others, including black brant and Atlantic brant geese, are capable of flying up to 1,000 miles without landing.

## Climate Change Disrupts Migration Patterns

During rest stops, geese replenish their energy reserves and recuperate before continuing north. However, increasingly severe and frequent storms driven by climate change are compressing these recovery windows, forcing geese to eat and move on more quickly than they otherwise would.

## Not All Geese Migrate Anymore

Interestingly, migration is no longer universal among geese. Over the past three to four decades, Canada geese have successfully adapted to live year-round in regions where they once only spent warmer months. Their larger size and notably assertive personalities give them a competitive edge over other species when resources are contested.

"You can imagine how they win these interactions with foxes, coyotes, and other birds," Weegman said. "They're serious competitors."

## Arriving Home — With a Partner for Life

By the time migrating geese finally reach their summer destinations, many have already accomplished something beyond the physical journey. They've found a breeding partner along the way — and once that bond is formed, it lasts a lifetime.

It's a fitting conclusion to one of nature's most extraordinary annual journeys: thousands of miles traveled, countless challenges overcome, and a lifelong partnership secured along the way.

Discover how and why geese migrate thousands of miles each spring, including their V-formation secrets, flyway routes, and incredible survival strategies.

The Science Behind Goose Migration Explained

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The Remarkable Science Behind Goose Migration: Nature's Most Impressive Journey North

Munns with (clockwise from bottom left): amethyst crystals, smoky quartz, an ammonite cast, a model of a crystalline mineral lattice, a fossilised ammonite and desert rose gypsum Photograph: Hilary Wardhaugh/The Guardian View image in fullscreen Munns with (clockwise from bottom left): amethyst crystals, smoky quartz, an ammonite cast, a model of a crystalline mineral lattice, a fossilised ammonite and desert rose gypsum Photograph: Hilary Wardhaugh/The Guardian A new start after 60: I’d had several careers but no degree – then I became a palaeontologist at 62 In search of a new adventure, Craig Munns went back to school. Now, at 65, he spends his days examining long-vanished life forms

C raig Munns has a large model of a T rex on his desk. He got it with a magazine subscription two decades ago. One day, a few years ago, he was sitting in his study, which was dense with books and yellow sticky notes and posters charting evolution from single cells upward, and he thought, “What am I going to do next in my life?” And his eyes lit upon the T rex.

Munns had recently taken on a job at the public library in Canberra, but it had always rankled with him that he had not studied for a degree, starting instead as an electronics trainee after he left school in Sydney, Australia. So he decided to enrol as a part-time student. He graduated at 62, with honours in palaeontology from the University of New England in Armidale, NSW.

Now 65 , Munns works at Geoscience Australia, a government agency that conducts geoscientific research. His main task is monitoring mineral deposits, but he sounds most animated when he talks about a palaeontology paper he is working on, about two drill cores – long tubes of rock – which were extracted east of Alice Springs in a search for minerals in the late 90s, and have since lain dormant in storage.

“I’m interested in the animals that are in there,” he says. “What I’m doing is looking at the biostratigraphy – the biology found at each strata, the progress of specimens or species through the strata.” He explains his methodology: “You chop the core up so it splits along lines where you might see a fossil.”

Despite the model T rex, dinosaurs are not Munns’ passion. “I’m more of an invertebrate sort of guy,” he says. “Worms, insects, lobsters …”

View image in fullscreen Munns with a trilobite fossil. Photograph: Hilary Wardhaugh/The Guardian We are speaking on a video call, and Munns holds up to the camera what looks like a lump of grey rock, but is actually a 500m-year-old trilobite that used to roll up into a ball to defend itself. “This one has got about 30 legs, and eyes on the top of its head. It lived in the mud and could see out. This is the thing with invertebrates,” he says. “Their body style is flexible.”

It is this “flexibility of life” that fascinates Munns above all. “How a life form copes with certain pressures, I suppose. I mean, that’s how life works.”

Munns’ own biography contains so many layers and life forms, it sounds a bit like one of his drill cores. After his brief stint as an electronics technician, he shifted into computer engineering in the late 80s. Next came tech support for a multinational, then sales, then teaching adults, until at 40 he started his own business as a computer sales consultant in Canberra.

After 12 years, he sold the company and got the library job – a huge shift in gear and drop in salary – alongside studying for the degree.

Wasn’t he frustrated by the lower level of demand and income?

“I don’t really think that way. It was just my next step,” he says. “You know, a new experience, a new adventure. Off I go. Like I do with all my stuff – just give it a try.” With his wife’s salary, they made ends meet.

Munns has had to do a fair amount of adapting himself. The biostratigraphy paper he is writing is one he started during his studies, and which he completed amid a slew of “traumatic events”. His parents both died, then Covid happened, after which he was knocked off his bike and broke both arms.

For his next job, he says, he would love to move into evolutionary palaeontology. “I don’t understand this retirement stuff. It doesn’t make any sense to me. Why would I do that? I think it’s more of a cultural thing. You’re expected to retire, so you retire.”

As a palaeontologist, he doesn’t want to be stuck in a cellar, guarding specimens as museum pieces. “I want to be looking at the changes that might happen in all things.”

In search of a new adventure, Craig Munns went back to school. Now, at 65, he spends his days examining long-vanished life forms

A new start after 60: I’d had several careers but no degree 

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A new start after 60: I’d had several careers but no degree – then I became a palaeontologist at 62

## Toxic Chemicals Detected in Popular Hair Extensions, Study Reveals

A newly published study has sent shockwaves through the beauty industry after researchers identified dangerous chemical compounds lurking in some of the most commonly used hair extensions on the market. The findings have sparked urgent conversations about consumer safety and the potential health risks associated with everyday beauty products.

### What the Research Found

Researcher Elissia Franklin, who spoke with NPR's Ayesha Rascoe on Weekend Edition Sunday, shed light on the disturbing discoveries made during the course of the study. The research highlights that certain hair extensions — products used by millions of people worldwide — may contain harmful substances that could pose significant health risks to users.

The study's revelations are particularly concerning given how widely hair extensions are worn across diverse communities, often for extended periods of time and in direct contact with the scalp and skin.

### Why This Matters for Consumers

Hair extensions are a staple beauty product for many individuals, offering versatility and confidence to wearers of all backgrounds. However, the presence of toxic chemicals in these products raises critical questions about industry regulation and product safety standards.

Consumers are encouraged to stay informed about the products they use and to consult with hair care professionals when selecting extensions. Advocates are also calling for stricter testing and transparency from manufacturers to ensure that beauty products meet rigorous safety benchmarks.

### A Growing Conversation Around Beauty Product Safety

This study adds to a growing body of research examining the safety of hair and beauty products, particularly those frequently used by women of color. Health experts and researchers continue to push for greater accountability within the beauty industry to protect public health.

As more findings emerge, consumers, policymakers, and manufacturers alike will need to work together to address these concerns and safeguard the well-being of all beauty product users.

A new study reveals toxic chemicals in widely used hair extensions, raising major health concerns for consumers. Learn what researchers discovered and what it m

Dangerous Chemicals Found in Common Hair Extensions

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Alarming Discovery: Toxic Chemicals Found in Widely Used Hair Extensions

## Commercial Satellites Expose the Scale of War Inside Iran

As military operations unfold across Iran, commercial satellite companies are delivering unprecedented imagery that reveals the true scope of destruction being inflicted on the country's military infrastructure — and how its population is responding.

### Opening Strikes Hit the Heart of Tehran

The military campaign launched with a bold daytime strike targeting Iranian leadership in the capital city of Tehran. Aerial imagery captured in the aftermath showed smoke still rising from the compound of Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who was killed in the initial wave of attacks. Satellite photos taken by Airbus on Saturday document the destruction left behind at Iran's Leadership House following the Israeli airstrike that ended the Supreme Leader's life.

### Widespread Military Targets Hit Across the Country

Israeli and U.S. forces have since expanded their campaign well beyond Tehran, striking military installations throughout Iran. Social media reports point to attacks on dozens of military compounds and bases scattered across the country. In response, Iran has launched retaliatory strikes targeting locations throughout the broader Middle East region.

### Iran's Naval Fleet Takes Heavy Losses

U.S. forces have directed significant firepower toward Iran's naval capabilities. President Trump stated via social media that he had been briefed on the sinking of nine Iranian naval vessels by U.S. forces. While U.S. Central Command did not immediately verify that figure, it confirmed striking at least one Iranian warship while docked in port.

Satellite imagery captured on Saturday shows multiple vessels engulfed in flames at Konarak naval base along Iran's southern coastline. Additional images from the same area reveal serious damage to a nearby airbase, where hardened aircraft hangars were destroyed by precision-guided munitions.

### Drone Base Destroyed; Iran Retaliates Across the Gulf

Images from the Konarak region also show substantial destruction at an Iranian drone facility, with multiple structures leveled in the strikes. Despite the damage, Iran has continued launching waves of drones and ballistic missiles toward Israel and U.S. military installations in Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar.

While many of these projectiles have been intercepted by air defense systems, videos circulating on social media confirm that some drones successfully evaded interception and caused damage in neighboring Gulf nations. Dubai's government issued an official statement confirming that debris from an Iranian drone struck the landmark Burj Al Arab hotel.

### Underground Missile Tunnels Targeted in Northern Iran

Among Iran's most formidable assets are its long-range ballistic missiles, many of which the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps has concealed deep inside mountain tunnel networks. Satellite imagery taken on Sunday in the mountainous terrain of northern Iran suggests that some of these fortified tunnel systems were hit during a coordinated wave of strikes.

### A Nation in Mourning

Following the death of Supreme Leader Khamenei, Iranian authorities declared a 40-day national mourning period. Satellite imagery captured on Sunday showed enormous crowds of mourners filling Tehran's Enghelab Square in a public display of grief.

Iran's Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Esmail Baghaei told NPR that the country intends to press on against what he described as "foreign aggression and foreign domination."

Meanwhile, a White House official indicated to NPR that President Trump plans to eventually engage with Iran's interim leadership in dialogue, but stressed that U.S. military operations in the region are continuing "unabated" for the time being.

Commercial satellite imagery captures burning warships, destroyed drone bases, and mass mourning in Tehran as US and Israeli strikes reshape Iran's military.

The Remarkable Science Behind Goose Migration: Nature's Most Impressive Journey North

A new start after 60: I’d had several careers but no degree – then I became a palaeontologist at 62

Alarming Discovery: Toxic Chemicals Found in Widely Used Hair Extensions

Eyes in the Sky: Satellite Images Reveal Devastating Strikes Across Iran